Frostbite, by Nicola Twilley (Penguin Press, 327 pages)
In 1911, a grand banquet was held in Chicago to showcase an exciting new kind of food.
At the event, put on by the national Poultry, Butter and Egg Association, the five-course meal featured food that had been preserved in cold for six months to a year. The purpose of the event was to prove to a skeptical public that it was safe to eat previously frozen food.
“At the time, suspicion of refrigerated food was widespread,” Nicola Twilley writes in Frostbite, her deep dive into “the vast synthetic winter we’ve built to preserve our food.”
While most of us take refrigeration for granted, just a little more than a century ago it was new technology that didn’t inspire confidence. The 400 diners at that Chicago banquet were considered brave. At the time, gastrointestinal infections were the third leading cause of mortality; people were dying of cheese and ice cream poisoning, and the purveyors of manufactured cold were desperate to convince people that meat and produce that had been stored for months were not only safe, but healthier than fresh food.
It took some time, but they succeeded, and in doing so they revolutionized the American diet. Today there is a largely unseen industry called the “the cold chain,” compromising warehouses, trucks, shipping containers and other apparatus that enable a dizzying array of food choices at supermarkets and restaurants. You may think your own office is too chilly at times, but at companies like Americold and NewCold, workers have to wear specialty clothing in order to endure sub-freezing temperatures during their eight-hour shifts.
In Frostbite, Twilley descends into the chill, donning thermal underwear to work in an Americold warehouse for two weeks and criss-crossing the planet to explore how artificial cold is generated, the mechanics of refrigeration and how the food supply has changed because of it. Amazingly, she manages to make all this all compelling.
She begins with an explanation of how cooling works, a process that seems simple enough now but took decades to develop, with a few tragedies along the way. One was at the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair, where “the Greatest Refrigerator on Earth” — a five-story cold storage building — attracted admiring crowds until it caught fire, killing 16 people, some of whom jumped to their deaths in front of horrified onlookers.
For the better part of a century, the development of refrigeration was a process marked by trial and error, with multiple entrepreneurs advancing the technology for their own purposes. They included a Trappist monk in France who created the first hermetically sealed compressor because he wanted to cool his wine.
While how a refrigerator works is fairly simple — Twilley travels to Pawtucket, Rhode Island, to watch the construction of a rudimentary one in a garage — it’s not so simple to know exactly how to store food for optimal results and a long life. That involved a long process of trial and error, too.
Apples, for example, remain edible for a year or more when the conditions are right, but fractions of degrees determine whether an apple will rot, and the perfect temperature range changes with the variety of apple. A century of research, however, allows us to buy “fresh” apples at the Market Basket year-round.
“Today, we know more about how to lengthen an apple’s lifespan than a human’s,” Twilley writes.
Which is a good thing, because in Twilley’s telling, harvesting produce sounds practically inhumane. Celery and bananas, for example, don’t immediately die when they are picked, but continue to “breathe” and burn through their own sugars and enzymes “in a desperate attempt to get their cell metabolism going.”
Cold works to preserve the life of produce by slowing the rate of respiration, which is why a green bean you select at the supermarket has typically spent less than two hours in temperatures above 45 degrees, having been rushed from the field to chilling machines and then one of the massive cold-storage facilities.
But the biggest way that refrigeration has altered our eating, and by extension, the planet, is how cold storage has driven the rise of meat consumption. Prior to refrigeration, humans ate only the meat on their farm or their neighbor’s, or animals that were walked to slaughterhouses in cities. Later, animals destined for slaughter were shipped cross-country on box cars, but that was inefficient and costly. It wasn’t until cold storage became widely available that animals themselves were not shipped, but their frozen parts, and this upped the demand for meat, not only because of the accessibility but because freezing improves the texture and taste.
As Twilley writes, “muscle … needs time and cold to ripen into meat.” It also benefits from electric shocks given to the animal carcass, which is information many people might prefer to not know. (“… Shocked beef is brighter red, which consumers prefer.”) Most notably, cold storage gave birth to the factory-farm industry that raises, slaughters and processes animals in numbers that are hard to imagine. To supply our poultry needs alone, Twilley notes that “there are approximately 22.7 billion broiler chickens living out their five-to-seven week spans on Earth at any given moment.”
Twilley takes the slow road to her final chapter, in which she travels to the ultimate frozen warehouse, the “doomsday vault” of seeds kept underground in Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean.
Along the way, she segues into refrigerator-related topics that are much less serious, such as the man who ran a dating service based on what the inside of people’s refrigerators look like. (John Stonehill was very impressed with Twilley’s — seeing photos, he said, “Your fridge is one of the most date-ready fridges I’ve seen in a hell of a long time. Are you married?”). As a writer for The New Yorker and The New York Times magazine, she says she has been “thinking and talking about refrigeration for a decade now,” and it’s hard to imagine that anyone is more well-versed in the topic. While refrigeration isn’t, on the surface, one of the most compelling of conversation topics, it’s a testament to Twilley’s skills as a writer and researcher that she has managed to make this niche subject engrossing. A
